What is the difference between functional and affective memory

Learning and recall effects: To evaluate learning effects, we examined changes in mean word recall between each IMR list presentation i. To test primacy and recency effects, we examined differences in Mean percentage of words recalled across the five IMR trials between primacy section and middle section and between middle section and recency section, with two paired t -tests. We examined whether age, sex, IQ, and educational level are associated with each of the nine VAMT outcomes in nine multiple regression models.

Retest data was not included in the analyses evaluating the psychometric properties of VAMT This method considers two components to assess stability: unbiasedness referred to as learning effect hereafter and precision small variance or degree of scatter. We expressed the learning effect as the mean difference in total number of words recalled between the first and second test. Unless otherwise stated, p -values were adjusted with the Bonferroni—Holm multiple comparison procedure Holm, , with the number of statistical tests carried out.

An alpha level of 0. Statistical analyses were conducted using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version Descriptive information about the healthy individuals included in Part 1 of the study is presented in Table 1.

The mean IQ score was in the high end of the normal range. BMI were not acquired in all studies from which the data from the CIMBI database originate, explaining the high number of missing values. Descriptive information for IMR 1—5 recall trials and for primacy and recency effects are listed in Supplementary Table S1. In post hoc analyses, we examined differences in STM and LTM recall within positive and negative words using Wilcoxon signed-rank analyses. Figure 2. Parametric tests were used to calculate the CI displayed in the figure.

P -values in analyses on learning effects i. P -values in analyses on differences in recall between IMR5 vs. LTM were obtained using three Wilcoxon sign-rank tests and adjusted for three comparisons using the Bonferroni—Holm adjustment procedure Holm, Figure 3.

Correlation matrix plot showing Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients between all valences i. The results of the bias indicated a significant increase in recall at the second test session and supported a learning effect. With respect to the achievable IMR Total score range from 0— and the achievable STM Total and LTM Total scores range from 0—26 , this corresponds to a difference in remembered words between first test and second test of 8.

Of these individuals, three were excluded because of missing education scores. In addition, we extracted data from the CIMBI database including healthy individuals between 18 and 65 years of age with baseline VAMT data and who did not undergo any experimental interventions.

Of these individuals, three were excluded because of missing LTM scores, three because of missing IQ scores, and four because of missing education scores. After a complete description of the respective studies, written informed consent was obtained prior to participation for all participants. The included data was collected from to For each recall outcome, a linear univariate Gaussian regression model was used to model its mean and its variance.

Age, IQ, and educational level were centered using the median and their effects on the recall score were modeled using a polynomial of degree 3. The variance was modeled as a function of VAMT version.

Diagnostic tests were performed to assess deviations from the normality assumption of the residuals of the univariate regression models. Next, we tested whether the difference in modeled mean significantly differed from 0 and whether the logarithm of the ratio between modeled variances significantly differed from 0.

We used robust Wald tests to evaluate significance levels, which makes our analyses and estimated confidence intervals robust to deviations to the normality assumption White, For this procedure, the covariance between the robust Wald statistics was estimated by computing the covariance between the influence function of the difference in modeled mean and of the logarithm of the ratio between the modeled variances over the nine univariate regression models Pipper et al.

Statistical analyses were conducted using R version 3. Descriptive information about the individuals included in Part 2 are listed in Table 3. Q—Q plots of the residuals of the 12 univariate regression models are displayed in Supplementary Figure S1.

Figure 4. The boxplots show the distribution of the percentage of words recalled in total and within each valence i. Outliers are identified as scores that fall below first quartile — 1. Outliers are plotted as individual points. This was in line with the results of the Kolmogorov—Smirnov tests: p -values, unadjusted for multiple comparisons, were all above 0. See Supplementary Figure S2 for a graphical display of the discrepancy between the two distributions.

In this part of the study, we examine biases in verbal affective memory in antidepressant-free patients diagnosed with MDD compared to healthy controls. We also evaluate whether VAMT Bias scores are associated with depressive symptoms across the two groups, i.

In accordance with the hypothesis of a mood-congruent memory bias by Bower , we explored whether 1 patients with MDD will display a negative memory bias i. We evaluated affective memory biases in MDD, using a sample of patients diagnosed with MDD as compared to the sample of healthy individuals from Part 2.

Patients with MDD were recruited from general practitioners or from a central referral center within the mental health services in the capital region of Denmark. Exclusion criteria for patients with MDD included non-depressive psychiatric history or comorbidity, significant somatic illness, brain trauma, use of psychotropic medication, significant lifetime history of drug or alcohol abuse, and pregnancy or breastfeeding.

Neuropsychological testing was managed by trained testers and took place in standardized test rooms. Of the patients with MDD included in the study, four patients dropped out prior to the neuropsychological examination, one patient spontaneously remitted before neuropsychological examination, one patient could not complete neuropsychological examination because of severe emotional distress, and two patients were pregnant at the time of the neuropsychological examination.

Hence, a total of 87 individuals diagnosed with MDD and healthy controls were included in Part 3. For all individuals, at the time of the neuropsychological testing, the subjective ratings of depressive symptoms were assessed with the Major Depression Inventory MDI assessing Bech et al.

The Capital Region Ethics Committee approved the study protocol: H and was registered as a clinical trial at www. All participants signed informed consent prior to participation.

To examine our first hypotheses, we conducted three linear regression models to regress the effect of group i. Covariates for the linear regression model analyses included sex and age. Educational level was not included as covariate in the models as educational scores were not associated with any VAMT outcomes.

Nor was IQ score used as a covariate, as IQ tests were performed while patients were depressed, and hence potentially did not reflect their premorbid IQ scores. Again, a Wald test was obtained from the three linear regression models to evaluate the significance level of the overall association between VAMT Bias scores and MDI scores.

We visually inspected deviations from the normality assumption of the residuals of the univariate regression models. The median of HDRS score was Figure 5. The y -axis density indicates to the relative frequency normalized such that the area covered by the bars of the histogram equals 1. Although the main effect was only significant at trend level, we explored the statistical trend and looked at each of the three linear regression models separately. Although, the main effect was only significant at trend level, we explored the statistical trend and looked at each of the three linear regression models separately.

Verbal affective memory tests may yield a greater understanding of affective cognition and its relevance for psychological health. Motivated by methodological shortcomings in available tests of verbal affective memory, we developed an extended version of the previously validated VAMT Jensen et al.

The present study evaluated the psychometric properties of VAMT within a large sample of healthy adults and examined affective memory biases in MDD. The VAMT was hereby supported as a valid test of verbal affective memory with good psychometric properties, such as no ceiling effects. VAMTscores also converged satisfactorily with scores on a neuropsychological test associated with non-affective verbal memory i.

Test—retest precision was satisfactory, while a significant increase in VAMT Total scores at the second test session was observed, supporting a learning effect. Patients with MDD tended to remember more negative words relative to positive words compared to healthy controls at borderline significance, adjusting for age and sex. Thus, some trend toward an affective memory bias in MDD was observed, however, effect sizes were small.

Finally, across individuals with a broad continuum of depressive symptoms, ranging from very low to very high, VAMT Bias scores were negatively associated with depressive symptoms at borderline significance.

The latter findings were expected since ceiling effects are usually avoided with lists containing more than 21 words Uttl, Our healthy, well-educated sample may have produced higher recall scores than would be obtained with the general Danish population, where we believe that ceiling effects would occur even more rarely.

Participants recalled fewer words in the STM trial and in the LTM trial compared to the IMR5 trial, suggesting that the interference list and the 30 min interval before LTM successfully interfered with recall performances, as expected.

This increase involved a significantly larger recall of positive words within the LTM recall trial compared to the STM trial. Alternatively, or simultaneously, the neuropsychological tests employed during the 30 min delay as part of the standardized test sessions may not have interrupted LTM Positive recall sufficiently.

Primacy and recency effects, for the first and last three words, respectively, were reaffirmed for the A list, supporting that recall is better for words at the beginning and end of a list compared to middle section words. To our knowledge, there is no consensus definition on the number of items to be used to assess primacy and recency effects. Although, our primacy and recency effects were similar to that reported for EVLT Strauss and Allen, , we cannot make a direct comparison as it was unclear how primacy and recency sections were defined.

Similar to the majority of memory tests Delis et al. The age effects observed in our study were present despite a relatively limited age range in our sample age range: 18—54 and despite the fact that the participants had high IQ and educational scores, which has been shown to counteract age-related decline in verbal memory Elwood, ; Clark et al. Women recalled more here positive words within LTM than men. These sex effects on verbal memory are consistent with results from previous verbal memory tests Bleecker et al.

While higher IQ scores were associated with performance on VAMT outcomes, educational scores were not, though our sample showed limited educational variation, and high IQ might decrease any effects of education on verbal recall Strauss et al.

Our convergent validity tests consistently supported, to some degree, the validity of VAMT scores, since these were positively associated with established scores on a neuropsychological instrument assessing non-affective working memory; LNS. Total VAMT scores showed acceptable 1-month test—retest precision. These results corroborate other verbal memory tests, e. However, VAMT Total scores demonstrated a pattern of learning effects, with improved performance on the test 1 month after first administration.

At the retest session, individuals remembered on average Although the wide LOA intervals indicate a large individual variability in learning effects, i. Taken together, while results on the test—retest precision analyses were satisfactory, results from limit of agreement analyses indicated a significant increase in recall at the second test session, supporting a learning effect. It is possible that a retest period of more than 1-month for testing with VAMT will lower the learning effects, and we encourage future studies to assess the temporal stability of VAMT Total scores at different time intervals.

In Part 3, we showed some trend toward a negative affective bias in verbal memory performance in MDD, however, the effect sizes were small.

However, it is important to stress that the effect size of the affective memory bias found here in MDD was small, suggesting that the magnitude of this bias may be modest. For example, patients remembered on average 1. Whether the negative affective biases are clinically relevant, cannot be addressed with our data, but we do not think this is very likely, as the difference in recall of negative words relative to positive words in patients with MDD compared to healthy controls is very small, especially when considering the variability of VAMT Bias scores.

In continuation of this, it is also possible that our large sample of patients with MDD and healthy controls has transformed small differences in affective memory bias into borderline significant differences. The affective memory biases in explicit non-self-referential in MDD converge with some previous findings in the depression literature Watkins et al.

However, our findings contrast with other studies showing positive memory biases in patients with MDD Danion et al. Factors that could contribute to these discrepancies in findings on explicit affective memory biases in patients with MDD are small study samples, the use of different verbal memory tests, and different criteria for depression diagnosis.

Across the entire sample i. Future studies could consider using cognitive tasks assessing autobiographical and implicit memory as they may be more sensitive for measuring affective memory disturbances in MDD.

Additionally, in this study we used a cross-sectional case-control design to examine affective bias in verbal memory in MDD-diagnosed patients compared to healthy controls. This corroborates with our previous findings on VAMT, where we showed seasonal changes in negative affective bias in verbal memory performance in individuals with Seasonal Affective Disorder compared to healthy controls, using a longitudinal design Jensen et al. Finally, future studies should examine whether mood-congruent bias in explicit non-referential affective memory can differentiate patients with MDD from healthy individuals, or instead characterize a subset of patients with MDD that respond differently to psychotherapy or pharmacological treatments, for example.

The latter could reconcile with our findings of negative bias in verbal memory at borderline significance in patients with MDD. We recommend and invite other researchers and clinicians to participate in further testing of the Danish VAMT versions and to the development of an English VAMT and versions in other languages.

This study and the VAMT test have several strengths. First, the relatively large sample size strengthens the statistical power to detect the impact of several covariates on verbal recall. In addition, the VAMT list consists of both positive and negative words, which allows for an examination of preferential encoding and recall of certain types affective information. Finally, VAMT words are equated on important stimuli features known to have an enhancing effect on memory, i.

However, there are several limitations of VAMT Firstly, larger and more representative samples, e. Secondly, the affective ratings of VAMT words were established only on valence. Future studies should evaluate semantic relatedness and arousal, as such factors could affect the influence of affectivity on recall Talmi and Moscovitch, ; Lewis et al. Future test—retest studies with larger samples should be conducted to test learning effects of VAMT scores over a longer time interval.

However, to directly compare the performance across VAMT test versions, future studies should employ both versions in the same sample of individuals. Fifthly, our large sample of patients and healthy controls may have amplified the detection of differences, emphasizing statistical differences that are not clinically relevant.

Positive and negative recall scores were internally consistent, and no test inherent affective biases were observed. VAMT showed no ceiling effects. Variables, including age, sex and IQ scores were related to VAMT recall performance, whereas educational level was not.

VAMT scores converged satisfactorily with a neuropsychological test associated with non-affective verbal memory. While retest precision was satisfactory over an approximately 1-month retest period, learning effects were not satisfactory but could likely be reduced with a longer test—retest interval. Finally, patients diagnosed with MDD tended to remember more negative words relative to positive words compared to healthy controls at borderline significance.

Thus, some trend toward mood-congruent bias in verbal memory in MDD was observed, however, effect sizes were small. We recommend VAMT to be used in Danish research to study verbal affective recall, and in international studies after proper translation collaborations.

The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript. The funding sources were not involved in designing the study or in collecting, analyzing, or publication of data. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The authors wish to acknowledge Peter Steen Jensen for data handling, and the volunteers for kindly participating in the research studies.

The red line indicates the expected difference between the two sessions, the blue and green dashed lines represent the lower and upper bound of the limits of agreement i. The shaded areas represent the confidence intervals for the bias and bounds of the limits of agreement.

Bayer, M. Event-related brain responses to emotional words, pictures, and faces - a cross-domain comparison. Bech, P. The sensitivity and specificity of the Major Depression Inventory, using the Present State Examination as the index of diagnostic validity.

Bennion, K. Oversimplification in the study of emotional memory. Bland, J. Statistical methods for assessing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement.

Lancet 1, — Bleecker, M. Age-related sex differences in verbal memory. Bopp, K. Aging and verbal memory span: a meta-analysis. B 60, — Bower, G.

Mood and memory. Google Scholar. Bradley, B. Implicit and explicit memory for emotion-congruent information in clinical depression and anxiety. Calev, A. Affect and memory in depression: evidence of better delayed recall of positive than negative affect words. Psychopathology 29, 71— Choi, H. The major difference between main memory and auxiliary memory is that main memory is directly accessed by CPU but the auxiliary memory is not accessed by the CPU directly.

For this the data is first transferred to main memory from auxiliary memory and then from main memory the data is transferred to the CPU for further processing. Answered By: Richa Singh. Memory is where you remember things and intelligance is what you actually know. Well, there is no "Memory for you, but there is "Memory in Daily Life. In "Memory in a Daily life" it's more up beat and mainly played with the piano.

There is no difference. Physical memory is how much total memory your computer actually has. Available memory is what memory you have that is not being used. The major difference between an SD memory card and a micro SD memory card is its size. A regular SD memory card is approximately an inch in diameter, where as a micro SD memory card is half its size to fit into digital cameras and phones. Retrospective memory is the kind of memory about things that had happened, while prospective memory is the kind of memory about future that one plan to do.

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